Chapter 22: Civilizing Duty

97       “I appeal to facts” John C. Calhoun, “Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions, Delivered in the Senate, February 6, 1837,” in The Works of John C. Calhoun, vol. 2, ed. Richard K. Crallé (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1853), archive.org/details/cu31924092898562/page/630/mode/2up, 630.

97       “Never before has the black race of Central Africa . . .” Calhoun, “Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions, Delivered in the Senate, February 6, 1837,” archive.org/details/cu31924092898562/page/630/mode/2up, 2:630.

97       “instead of an evil” . . .  “a good—a positive good”  Calhoun, “Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions, Delivered in the Senate, February 6, 1837,” archive.org/details/cu31924092898562/page/630/mode/2up, 2:631.

97       Prince Henry of Portugal, the pioneer of the Atlantic human trade  Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, rev. ed. (New York: Bold Type Books, 2023), 22–25. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1340743269.

97       “with great pleasure upon the salvation of those souls”  Gomes Eanes de Zurara, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, trans. Charles Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1896), archive.org/details/chronicleofdisco01zura/page/82/mode/2up, 1:83.

97       “for their own greatest good”  Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Democrates Part Two, on the Just Reasons for the War Against the Indians, c. 1547, in Sepúlveda on the Spanish Invasion of the Americas: Defending Empire, Debating Las Casasa, ed and trans. Luke Glanville et al. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2023), 129. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1257403303.

97       “may submit to men who are good . . .”  Sepúlveda, Democrates Part Two, 129. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1257403303.

97       “Brought to a healthier land . . .”  Francisco de Auncibay quoted in Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery (London: Verso Books, 1999), 152. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1194419105.

97       casting the harrowing floating prison as carrying  Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, 193. Find the library book atsearch.worldcat.org/title/1194419105.

97–98 “I contend that we are the finest race in the world . . .” Cecil Rhodes, “Confession of Faith,” 1877, in John E. Flint, Cecil Rhodes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 248. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/984158.

98       planned the agenda of the Berlin Conference  George Forji Amin, International Law and the History of Resource Extraction in Africa: Capital Accumulation and Underdevelopment, 1450–1918 (Taylor & Francis Group, 2023), 221. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1374189308.

98       partitioned the lands of Africa  Amin, International Law and the History of Resource Extraction in Africa: Capital Accumulation and Underdevelopment, 1450–1918, 165, 221. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1374189308.

98       “I maintain that European nations acquit . . .” Jules François and Camille Ferry, “Speech Before the French Chamber of Deputies, March 28, 1884,” Discours et Opinions de Jules Ferry, ed. Paul Robiquet (Paris: Armand Colin & Cie., 1897), 199–201, 210–211, 215–218, translated by Ruth Kleinman in Brooklyn College Core Four Sourcebook, available at origin.web.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1884ferry.asp. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/921758485.

98       After a century of genocidal colonial wars against Native nations . . .  Historian Jeffrey Ostler explains, “As early as Thomas Jefferson’s presidency (1801–1809), U.S. actions made it clear that despite talk of civilization and assimilation, the United States would ultimately pursue a third option for the elimination of Indians east of the Mississippi River: they would be moved west of the Mississippi. For practical reasons, it was not possible to implement a full-scale policy of removal until 1830 with the passage of the Indian Removal Act. In the meantime, the United States took a piecemeal approach to eliminating Indian lands and opening them to settlement by demanding that Native nations agree to treaties that ceded a portion of their lands. The preference of U.S. officials was for Native nations to willingly accept demands for their lands, but many Native leaders refused to agree to land cession treaties. These leaders regarded treaties that other leaders signed (almost always under coercive pressure) as illegitimate and often turned to militant resistance to defend their lands. When this happened, U.S. officials pursued another policy option: genocidal warfare. For several reasons, including cost, lack of capacity, and the necessity to appear to be acting according to Tocqueville’s ‘laws of humanity,’ the United States did not make outright genocide its first option for elimination. But, as this book will show, U.S. officials developed a policy that ‘wars of extermination’ against resisting Indians were not only necessary but ethical and legal . . . Not only did the United States establish genocidal warfare as a policy option (as outlined above), American military forces attempted to commit acts of genocide and sometimes succeeded, government officials routinely relied on the threat of genocidal violence to secure agreement to treaties, and the policy of Indian removal had genocidal consequences.” Jeffrey Ostler, Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 4, 7. To locate this book at a library near you, visit search.worldcat.org/title/1099434736.

98       genocidal colonial war in the Philippines Dylan Rodriguez, Suspended Apocalypse: White Supremacy, Genocide, and the Filipino Condition (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 98–150. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/593295907.

98       “With us expansion means . . .” Theodore Roosevelt, “Free Silver, Trusts, and the Philippines,” September 7, 1900, in The Works of Theodore Roosevelt: Memorial Edition, vol. 16 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1925), www.google.com/books/edition/The_Works_of_Theodore_Roosevelt_Campaign/jkFJXkx4FDUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PR4&printsec=frontcover, 538.

98       “bringing forward backward races . . .”  Winston   Churchill, letter to Dwight D. Eisenhower, August 8, 1954, quoted in Christopher Catherwood, Churchill, Eisenhower, and the Making of the Modern World (Lanham, MD: Lyons Press, 2023), 3. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1309336035.

98       “positive influence” Jean-Marie Le Pen quoted in Adar Primor, “‘The veil? It protects us from ugly women,’” The Guardian, April 25, 2002, www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/25/france.features11.

98       “the civilising mission without scare quotes . . .”  Bruce Gilley, “The Case for Colonialism,” Third World Quarterly (September 2017), web.pdx.edu/~gilleyb/2_The%20case%20for%20colonialism_at2Oct2017.pdf, 1.

98       that “the African colonisation of Europe is worse . . .”  Camus, You Will Not Replace Us!, 43. Find the library book at search.worldcat.org/title/1091051149.

98       nineteen senators and seventy-seven representatives This was the count provided in the Congressional Record on March 12, 1956. U.S Congress, Congressional Record, 84th Cong., 2nd sess., Vol. 102, Part 4 (March 12, 1956), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1956-pt4/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1956-pt4-3-1.pdf, 4460–4461.

98–99 “is destroying the amicable relations . . .”  Southern Manifesto in U.S. Congress,   Congressional Record, 84th Cong., 2nd sess., Vol. 102, Part 4 (March 12, 1956), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1956-pt4/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1956-pt4-3-1.pdf, 4460.

99       “There have been many disparities . . .” Richard Russell Jr. in U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 2nd sess., Vol. 110, Part 4 (March 16, 1964), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt4/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt4-10-2.pdf, 5343–5344.

99       “But I insist that more of them grew out . . .”  Russell Jr. in U.S. Congress, Congressional Record (March 16, 1964), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt4/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1964-pt4-10-2.pdf, 5344.

99       three times more likely to die of pregnancy-related causes  Latoya Hill et al., “Racial Disparities in Maternal and Infant Health: Current Status and Efforts to Address Them,” KFF, October 25, 2024, www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/racial-disparities-in-maternal-and-infant-health-current-status-and-efforts-to-address-them/.

99       still more likely than low-income White women . . .  “The maternal mortality rate for Black mothers in the top quintile of the income distribution is 4.3 deaths per 10,000, about 60 percent higher than the rate among white mothers in the bottom quintile of the income distribution, which is 2.7 deaths per 10,000.” Kate Kennedy-Moulton et al., “Maternal and Infant Health Inequality: New Evidence from Linked Administrative Data,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 30693 (September 2023), www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30693/w30693.pdf, 5.

99       reflect the economic inequities  Liz Mineo, “New Study Finds Wide Gap in SAT/ACT Test Scores Between Wealthy, Lower-Income Kids,” Harvard Gazette, November 22, 2023, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2023/11/new-study-finds-wide-gap-in-sat-act-test-scores-between-wealthy-lower-income-kids.

99       Homicide rates tend to track higher . . .“When a city has large numbers of low-income neighborhoods combined with large numbers of teen boys not in school or young men out of work, it is likely to have high rates of homicide and other forms of violence.” See Rohit Acharya and Rhett Morris, “Why Did U.S. Homicides Spike in 2020 and Then Decline Rapidly in 2023 and 2024?” Brookings Institution, December 16, 2024, www.brookings.edu/articles/why-did-u-s-homicides-spike-in-2020-and-then-decline-rapidly-in-2023-and-2024/.

99       higher-income Black neighborhoods have  Ariana N. Gobaud et al., “Absolute Versus Relative Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Homicide: A Spatial Ecological Case–Control Study of US Zip Codes,” Injury Epidemiology 9, no. 7 (February 2022), pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8876118/.

99–100 “This is what one meets when one tries to psychoanalyze . . .”  Maston E. O’Neal Jr. in U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Vol. 111, Part 6 (April 14, 1965), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt6/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt6-6-1.pdf, 8033.

100      “There are many factors to be considered in analyzing statistics”  O’Neal Jr. in U.S. Congress, Congressional Record (April 14, 1965), www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt6/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt6-6-1.pdf, 8033.

100      struck down two Arizona laws that made it harder  Bob Christie and Jacques Billeaud, “Appeals Court Throws Out Arizona Ballot Harvesting Law,” Associated Press (AP) News, January 28, 2020, apnews.com/general-news-d6b75b7a1c2da695d756cb4e864cd2b8; and Mark Joseph Stern, “Appeals Court Finds Arizona Intended to Suppress Nonwhite Votes,” Slate, January 28, 2020, slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/01/ninth-circuit-arizona-voter-suppression-racist.html.

100      “mere inconvenience”  Samuel Alito, opinion of the Court, Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, 594 U.S. 647 (2021), www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/20pdf/19-1257_g204.pdf.

100      “The mere fact that there is some disparity . . .”  Alito, opinion of the Court, Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/20pdf/19-1257_g204.pdf.

100      “eliminate disparate impact as a valid theory . . .”  Jonathan Berry, “Department of Labor and Related Agencies,” in Mandate for Leadership, static.heritage.org/project2025/2025_MandateForLeadership_FULL.pdf, 583.

100      advantages given to relatives of college alumni, employees, and donors  Marián Vargas and Sean Tierney, “Legacy Looms Large in College Admissions, Perpetuating Inequities in College Access,” Institute for Higher Education Policy, July 1, 2024, https://www.ihep.org/legacy-looms-large-in-college-admissions-perpetuating-inequities; and Peter Arcidiacono et al., “Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 26316 (September 2019), www.nber.org/papers/w26316, 1.

100      comprised 71 percent of athletes at  Uma Mazyck Jayakumar et al., “Race and Privilege Misunderstood: Athletics and Selective College Admissions in (and Beyond) the Supreme Court Affirmative Action Cases,” UCLA Law Review (June 6, 2023), www.uclalawreview.org/race-and-privilege-misunderstood-athletics-and-selective-college-admissions-in-and-beyond-the-supreme-court-affirmative-action-cases/.

100      6 percent . . . were Black, 5. . . Asian, 3 . . . Latino . . . “close to zero” . . . Native American  Jayakumar et al., “Race and Privilege Misunderstood,” www.uclalawreview.org/race-and-privilege-misunderstood-athletics-and-selective-college-admissions-in-and-beyond-the-supreme-court-affirmative-action-cases/.

100      43 percent of White students admitted to Harvard were . . .  Arcidiacono et al., “Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard,” www.nber.org/papers/w26316, 16.

100      16 percent of Black, Latino, and Asian students  Arcidiacono et al., “Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard,” www.nber.org/papers/w26316, 16.

100–101 “would have been rejected” if not for such admissions boosts  Arcidiacono et al., “Legacy and Athlete Preferences at Harvard,” www.nber.org/papers/w26316, 1.

101       “race-based”  Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, 600 U.S. 181 (2023), www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf.

101       “race-neutral”   Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, 600 U.S. 181 (2023), www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf.

101       “broad observations about statistical relationships . . ."  Clarence Thomas, concurring, Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, 600 U.S. 181 (2023), www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf.

101       “to label all blacks as victims”  Clarence Thomas, concurring, Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, 600 U.S. 181 (2023), www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf.

101       with so many Hungarians migrating away and birth rates at record lows  Kamilla Marton and Bence X. Szechenyi, “Inside Viktor Orbán’s Failure to Achieve His Demographic Goal,” VSquare, July 10, 2025, vsquare.org/inside-viktor-orbans-failure-to-achieve-his-demographic-goal/.

101       Hungary’s population declined between 2014 and 2023  Marton and Szechenyi, “Inside Viktor Orbán’s Failure to Achieve His Demographic Goal,” vsquare.org/inside-viktor-orbans-failure-to-achieve-his-demographic-goal/.

101       routinely leads to economic decline  Marton and Szechenyi, “Inside Viktor Orbán’s Failure to Achieve His Demographic Goal,” vsquare.org/inside-viktor-orbans-failure-to-achieve-his-demographic-goal/.

101       “Ordinary citizens, average citizens are moving . . .”  “‘Tucker Carlson Tonight’ on Vaccines, Hungary Prime Minister Interview,” www.foxnews.com/transcript/tucker-carlson-tonight-on-vaccines-hungary-prime-minister-interview, 14:17–14:23.

101–102 “Many Christian families and conservative families . . .”  “‘Tucker Carlson Tonight’ on Vaccines, Hungary Prime Minister Interview,” www.foxnews.com/transcript/tucker-carlson-tonight-on-vaccines-hungary-prime-minister-interview, 14:28–14:53.

102      “so we can’t exclude the future of the European history . . .” “‘Tucker Carlson Tonight’ on Vaccines, Hungary Prime Minister Interview,”www.foxnews.com/transcript/tucker-carlson-tonight-on-vaccines-hungary-prime-minister-interview, 15:08–15:19.

102      mass-deporting Black and Brown immigrants and a month before banning travel  News of the Trump administration’s plan to admit a group of White South Africans broke on “the same day the administration asked the Supreme Court to allow it to rescind deportation protections from hundreds of thousands of Cuban, Haitian, Nicaraguan and Venezuelan immigrants.” Ja'han Jones, “Trump Welcomes White South Africans to the U.S. While Other Immigrants Get the Boot,” MSNBC, May 9, 2025, www.msnbc.com/top-stories/latest/white-south-africans-refugees-trump-rcna205894. In July 2025, the Guardian estimated that the administration had “deported more than 127,000 people” since the beginning of the year. Maanvi Singh et al., “How Trump Has Supercharged the Immigration Crackdown—in Data,” The Guardian, July 23, 2025, www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2025/jul/23/trump-ice-data-deportations-detention.

102      welcomed White South Africans as “refugees”  Donald Trump, “Addressing Egregious Actions of The Republic of South Africa,” The White House, February 7, 2025, www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/02/addressing-egregious-actions-of-the-republic-of-south-africa/; Abigail Williams and Gabe Gutierrez, “The Trump Administration Is Chartering a Plane to Bring the First White South Africans to the U.S. as Refugees,” NBC News, May 9, 2025, www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/trump-administration-charter-plane-first-white-south-africans-refugees-rcna205971; and Abigail Williams and Joy Y. Wang, “White South Africans Arrive in the U.S. as Refugees, Protected Under Trump’s Carve-Out,” NBC News, May 12, 2025, www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/white-south-africans-arrive-us-refugees-protected-trumps-carve-rcna206373.

102      fleeing White “genocide”  On the day that fifty-nine White South Africans arrived in the United States, Trump told reporters, “It’s a genocide that’s taking place that you people [reporters] don’t want to write about . . . Farmers are being killed. They happen to be White. But whether they’re White or Black makes no difference to me. But White farmers are being brutally killed and their land is being confiscated in South Africa. And the newspapers and the media, television media, doesn’t even talk about it. If it were the other way around they’d talk about it. That would be the only story they’d talk about . . . We’ve essentially extended citizenship to those people to escape from that violence and come here.” “Trump Defends Admitting White South Africans as Refugees After Halting Resettlement for Most Others,” Associated Press (AP) News, video, May 12, 2025, apnews.com/video/trump-defends-admitting-white-south-africans-as-refugees-after-halting-resettlement-for-most-others-b3e74c6b4e584a02b798f7598dfd2132, 0:37–1:31. See also Williams and Wang, “White South Arrive in the U.S. as Refugees, Protected Under Trump’s Carve-Out ,” www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/white-south-africans-arrive-us-refugees-protected-trumps-carve-rcna206373.

102      “race-based discrimination”  Trump, “Addressing Egregious Actions of The Republic of South Africa,” www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/02/addressing-egregious-actions-of-the-republic-of-south-africa/; and Williams and Wang, “White South Africans Arrive in the U.S. as Refugees, Protected Under Trump’s Carve-Out ,” www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/white-south-africans-arrive-us-refugees-protected-trumps-carve-rcna206373.

102      “be assimilated easily into our country” Christopher Landau quoted in Williams and Wang, “White South Africans Arrive in the U.S. as Refugees, Protected Under Trump’s Carve-Out,” www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/white-south-africans-arrive-us-refugees-protected-trumps-carve-rcna206373.